Una administración pública resquebrajada en Perú: cómo el "Vacunagate" ha sacudido los cimientos de una sociedad ya dañada
Main Article Content
Keywords
Vacunagate, Perú, Corrupción, Liderazgo, Instituciones, Gobierno Corporativo, Ética, Administración Pública, Teoría de la Agencia
Resumen
Si bien las crisis son omnipresentes en América Latina, tanto por sus características geográficas como por su turbulento entorno empresarial, países como Perú presentan además índices extremos de corrupción y una profunda debilidad institucional. Estos factores, en conjunto, socavan cualquier intento de los gobiernos nacionales o de los esfuerzos colectivos de la sociedad para lograr la sostenibilidad. Este trabajo pretende analizar el escándalo del "Vacunagate" ocurrido en Perú durante las primeras negociaciones del proceso de vacunación contra el COVID-19, utilizando un método de estudio de caso, y enfocando nuestra discusión desde la Teoría de la Agencia así como desde las perspectivas de liderazgo e institucional. Los resultados del análisis enfatizan cómo el evento "Vacunagate" generó limitaciones relevantes para el logro del ODS 16, y sus metas específicas relacionadas con proveer justicia para todos, enfrentar el crimen organizado, reducir la corrupción y crear instituciones responsables. Además, el estudio proporciona ideas e implicaciones para las organizaciones en el Perú que tendrían que operar bajo un ambiente de negocios turbulento, considerando una corrupción como de costumbre y un contexto institucional débil.
Descargas
Referencias
Aguilera, R.V., Crespí-Cladera, R., and Kabbach de Castro, L.R. (2019). Corporate Governance in Latin America: Towards Shareholder Democracy. AIB Insights, 19(2), 13-17. https://doi.org/10.46697/001c.16823
Aquino, M. (2020). Peru's presidential lineup: graft probes, suicide and impeachment. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-peru-politics-presidents-factbox-idUSKBN27V0M1
Azevedo, G., Carneiro, J., Rodriguez, C., and Gonzalez-Perez, M.A. (2020), “Rebalancing society: Learning from the experience of Latin American progressive leaders”, Journal of Business Research, 119, 511-521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.08.007
Blanchard, K. (1997). Leadership at the highest level. Norma Edit.
Boin, A. and ‘T Hart, P. (2003). Public Leadership in Times of Crisis: Mission Impossible? Public Administration Review, 63(5), 544-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6210.00318
Chauvin, L. (2021). Peruvian COVID-19 vaccine scandal spreads. The Lancet, 397(10276), 783. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00508-0
CNN, (2021). Vacunagate: el furor de las vacunas contra el coronavirus pone de relieve una larga historia de conducta indebida de funcionarios electos en Perú. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2021/02/18/vacunagate-el-furor-de-las-vacunas-contra-el-coronavirus-pone-de-relieve-una-larga-historia-de-mala-conducta-de-los-funcionarios-electos-en-peru/
Cordova, M. (2018). The Evolution of Interlocking Directorates Studies – A Global Trend Perspective. AD-minister, 33, 135-165. https://doi.org/10.17230/ad-minister.33.7
Cordova, M., Huamán, F., Liñan, T., and Powosino, R. (2022). Regenerative Futures for Peru. In: Gonzalez-Perez, M.A. (Ed) (2022) Regenerative and Sustainable Futures for Latin America and the Caribbean: Collective action for a region with a better tomorrow. Emerald Publishing: Bentley, UK.
Correa Meneses, J.S., Rodríguez Córdoba, M., and Pantoja Ospina, M.A. (2018). Liderazgo ético en las organizaciones: Una revisión de la literatura. AD-minister, 32, 57-82. https://doi.org/10.17230/ad-minister.32.3
Dalton, D.R., Hitt, M.A., Certo, S.T., and Dalton, C.M. (2007). The Fundamental Agency Problem and Its Mitigation: Independence, equity, and the market for corporate control. The Academy of Management Annals, 1(1), 1-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/078559806
Degregori, C. I. (2004). Ilave: desafío de la gobernabilidad, la democracia participativa y la descentralización. 1st ed. Lima: Grupo Propuesta Ciudadana.
DiMaggio, P.J. and Powell, W.W. (1983). The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147-160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101
Durand, F. (2018). Odebrecht: La empresa que capturaba gobiernos. Lima: Fondo Editorial PUCP.
Durand, F. (2019). La Captura del Estado en América Latina: Reflexiones Teóricas. Lima: Fondo Editorial PUCP.
Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989). Agency Theory: and Assessment Review. The Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.2307/258191
Fama, E.F., and Jensen, M.C. (1983). Separation of Ownership and Control. The Journal of Law and Economics, 26(2), 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.94034
Gao, C., Zuzul, T., Jones, G. and Khanna, T. (2017). Overcoming Institutional Voids: A Reputation-Based View of Long-Run Survival. Strategic Management Journal, 38(11), 2147-2167. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2649
Gestión (2021a). ‘Vacunagate’: Fueron 470 personas vacunadas de manera irregular con las dosis de Sinopharm. https://gestion.pe/peru/vacunagate-fueron-470-personas-las-vacunadas-de-manera-irregular-con-las-dosis-de-sinopharm-fernando-carbone-nndc-noticia/
Gestión (2021b). Martín Vizcarra es el candidato con más votos para el Congreso, según el 25.35% de actas procesadas. https://gestion.pe/peru/resultados-de-la-onpe-martin-vizcarra-es-el-candidato-con-mas-votos-para-el-congreso-segun-el-2535-de-actas-procesadas-nndc-noticia/
Gillespie, P. and Brocchetto, M. (2017). This company created the world's biggest bribery ring. CNN.
https://money.cnn.com/2017/04/05/news/economy/odebrecht-latin-america-corruption/index.html
Goleman, D. (2017). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review Press.
Gonzáles, J., Ramirez, R., Terán, N. and Palomino, G. (2021). Organizational climate in the Latin American public sector. Ciencia latina, 5(1), 1157-1170. http://dx.doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v5i1.318
Gonzalez, E., Harrison, C., Hopkins, K., Horwitz, L., Nagovitch, P., Sonneland, H.K. and Zissis, C. (2021). The Coronavirus in Latin America. AS/COA. https://www.as-coa.org/articles/coronavirus-latin-america
Gonzalez-Perez, M.A., Cordova, M., Hermans, M., Nava-Aguirre, K.M., Monje-Cueto, F., Mingo, S., Tobon, S., Rodriguez, C.A., Salvaj, E.H. and Floriani, D.E. (2021). Crises conducting stakeholder salience: shifts in the evolution of private universities’ governance in Latin America, Corporate Governance, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/CG-09-2020-0397
Grompone, R. and Tanaka, M. (2009). Entre el crecimiento económico y la insatisfacción social. Las protestas sociales en el Perú actual. 1st ed. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos (IEP).
Hambrick, D. (2007). Upper echelons theory: An update. Academy of Management, 32(2), 334-343.
Hart, P. (1993). Symbols, Rituals and Power: The Lost Dimensions of Crisis Management. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 1(1), 36-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5973.1993.tb00005.x
Hearit, K.M. (2005). Crisis management by apology: Corporate response to allegations of wrongdoing. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410615596
Hernandez-Sampieri, R. and Mendoza, Ch. (2018). Metodología de la investigación. Las rutas cuantitativas, cualitativa y mixta. McGraw Hill: Mexico
Hoskisson, R.E., Eden, L., Lau, C.M. and Wright, M. (2000). Strategy in emerging economies. Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 249-267. https://doi.org/10.2307/1556394
International Transparency. (2019). What people think: Corruption in Latin America & the Caribbean.
https://www.transparency.org/en/news/what-people-think-corruption-in-latin-america-the-caribbean
Klarén, P.F. (2019). Nación y Sociedad en la Historia del Perú. 8th ed. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos (IEP).
Leon Quillas, C.I., Rueda Rodriguez, H.F. and Gonzalez Ocampo, C.H. (2020). Formal institutions, human development and entrepreneurship: a comparative study between highly developed countries and member countries of the pacific alliance. AD-minister, 36, 45-66. https://doi.org/10.17230/Ad-minister.36.3
LPDerecho (2021). El caso Vacunagate: ¿qué delitos habría cometido Vizcarra y su círculo? https://lpderecho.pe/vacuna-gate-que-delitos-habria-cometido-vizcarra-y-su-circulo/
Malanski, L.K. and Póvoa, A.C.S. (2021). Economic growth and corruption in emerging markets: Does economic freedom market? International Economics, 166, 58-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2021.02.001
Maldonado, T., Vera, D. and Spangler, W.D. (2022). Unpacking humility: Leader humility, leader personality, and why they matter. Business Horizons, 65(2), 125-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2021.02.032
Matos, J., Whyte, W. F., Cotler, J., Williams, L. K., Alers, J. O., Fuenzalida, F., and Alberti, G. (1969). Dominación y cambios en el Perú rural. 1st ed. Lima: IEP.
Maxwell, J. (1998). The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership. Tennessee, Thomas Nelson Inc.
Mayta-Tovalino, F., Munive-Degregori, A., Mendoza, R. and Alvitez-Temoche, D. (2021). Vacunagate scandal and its possible impact on the vaccination against COVID-19 of health professionals in Peru. Journal of International Oral Health, 13(3), 310-311.
http://www.jioh.org/article.asp?issn=0976-7428;year=2021;volume=13;issue=3;spage=310;epage=311;aulast=Mayta%2DTovalino
Mayta-Tristán, P. and Aparco, J.P. (2021). El uso de un producto en investigación fuera de un ensayo clínico: El caso “Vacunagate”. Revista Peruana de Medicina Experimental y Salud Pública, 38(2), 203-205. https://doi.org/10.17843/rpmesp.2021.382.8694
Mohieldin, M.; Piedrahita-Carvajal; Velez-Ocampo, J. and Gonzalez-Perez, M.A. (2022). Sustainable Development Challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean. In: Gonzalez-Perez, M.A. (Ed.) Regenerative and Sustainable Futures for Latin America and the Caribbean: Collective action for a region with a better tomorrow. Emerald Group Publishing Limited: Bingley, UK
Mohieldin, M. and Shehata, M. (2021). The SDGs as an Operational Framework for Post COVID-19 Response and Recovery. AD-minister, 38, 5-42. https://doi.org/10.17230/Ad-minister.38.1
Oliver, C. (1992). The Antecedents of Deinstitutionalization. Organization Studies, 13(4), 563-588. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069201300403
Oliver, C. (1997). Sustainable competitive advantage: Combining institutional and resource-based views. Strategic Management Journal, 18(9), 697-713. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199710)18:9<697::AID-SMJ909>3.0.CO;2-C
Osedo, C. O., Mwanza, J., and Ogendo, J. L. (2020). The Effect of Corporate Governance on Corporate Performance of General Insurance Companies In Kenya. Scholars Journal of Economics, Business and Management, 325-335. https://doi.org/10.36347/sjebm.2020.v07i09.007
Palacios, P. (2022). Aprueban informe que acusa a Martín Vizcarra por el caso vacunagate. La República. https://larepublica.pe/ olítica/actualidad/2022/07/21/martin-vizcarra-aprueban-informe-que-acusa-a-vizcarra-por-el-caso-vacunagate-congreso/
Pearson, C.M. and Clair, J.A. (1998). Reframing crisis management. Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 59-76. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1998.192960
Peng, M.W., Sun, S.L., Pinkham, B. and Chen, H. (2009). The Institution-Based View as a Third Leg for a Strategy Tripod. Academy of Management Perspectives, 23(3), 63-81. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2009.43479264
Posner, R. A. (1997). Social Norms and the Law: An Economic Approach. American Economic Review, 87(2), 365–69. https://doi.org/10.2307/2950947.
Reátegui, L., Grompone Velásquez, A. and Rentería, M. (2022). ¿De qué colegio eres? La reproducción de la clase alta en el Perú. 1st ed. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos (IEP).
Rialp, A., Rialp, J. and Knight, G. (2005). The Phenomenon of Early Internationalizing Firms: What Do We Know After a Decade (1993–2003) of Scientific Inquiry? International Business Review, 14(2), 147-166.
Robbins, S. and Coulter, M. (2005). Administration. 8°ed. (8nd ed). Mexico, Pearson Education.
Romero Montes, F.J. (2019). La Justicia colapsada en el Perú. Revista de Derecho y Ciencia Política, 74, 205-236.
Rosenthal, U. and Kouzmin, A. (1997). Crises and crisis management: Toward comprehensive government decision making. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 7(2), 277-304. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024349
Saxton, G.W. (2021). Governance Quality, Fairness Perceptions, and Satisfaction with Democracy in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society, 63(2), 122-145. https://doi.org/10.1017/lap.2021.8
Simons, H. (2011). El estudio de caso: Teoría y práctica. Ediciones Morata.
Shleifer, A. and Vishny, R.W. (1997). A survey of corporate governance. Journal of Finance, 52(2), 737-783.
Szymanski, M., Valdovinos, I. and Kaltenecker, E. (2021). How far are we from understanding corruption? The effect of cultural distance on corruption perception. Critical Perspectives on International Business, 18(2), 224-242. https://doi.org/10.1108/cpoib-06-2020-0079
Timothy Coombs, W. and Holladay, S.J. (2006). Unpacking the halo effect: reputation and crisis management. Journal of Communication Management, 10(2), 123-137. https://doi.org/10.1108/13632540610664698
Ugaz, J. (2020). La gran corrupción: El abuso sistemático del poder en perjuicio del bien común y su impacto en los derechos fundamentales de los más vulnerables. Editorial Planeta Perú.
United Nations (2015). The Sustainable Development Agenda. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-agenda/
United Nations (2021). World Economic Situation and Prospects. United Nations. Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2021_CH3_LAC.pdf
Useem, M. (1984). The inner circle. Large corporations and the rise of business political activity in the U.S. and U.K. New York: Oxford University Press.
Useem, M. (2020). It’s your leadership moment. Knowledge@Wharton. Retrieved from https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/its-your-leadership-moment/
Vargas, C., Gomez-Valencia, M., Gonzalez-Perez, M.A., Cordova, M., Calixto Casnici, C.V., Monje-Cueto, F., Nava-Aguirre, K.M., Minto-Coy, I. and Coronado, F. (2022). Climate-resilient and regenerative futures for Latin America and the Caribbean. Futures, 142, 103014.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2022.103014
Vassolo, R.S., De Castro, J.O. and Gomez-Mejia, L.R. (2012). Managing in Latin America: Common Issues and a Research Agenda. Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(4), 22-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amp.2011.0129
Venard, B. (2018). Lessons from the massive Siemens corruption scandal one decade later. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-the-massive-siemens-corruption-scandal-one-decade-later-108694
Vera, S.B. (2020). Accepting or Resisting? Citizen Responses to Corruption Across Varying Levels of Competence and Corruption Prevalence. Political Studies, 68(3), 653-670. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719868210
Vergara, A. (2018). Ciudadanos sin república. De la precariedad institucional al descalabro político. 2nd ed. Lima: Editorial Planeta.
Viscidi, L. (2019). Turmoil in South America and the Impact on Energy Markets. IAI papers, 19(26), 1-17.
https://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/turmoil-south-america-and-impact-energy-markets
Washington Post (2021). “Vacunagate” y la repetitiva traición peruana. https://www.washingtonpost.com/es/post-opinion/2021/02/17/vacunagate-peru-vacunas-covid-19-polticos-vizcarra/
Walker, J. (2016). Civil Society’s Role in a Public Health Crisis. Issues in Science and Technology, 32(4), 43-48. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24727090
Webb, J.W., Tihanyi, L., Ireland, R.D. and Sirmon, D.G. (2009). You say illegal, I say legitimate: Entrepreneurship in the informal economy. Academy of Management Review, 34(3), 492-510. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2009.40632826
WHO (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Situation Report – 51. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200311-sitrep-51-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=1ba62e57_10
Wright, R. (2020). Some Zoos, and Some of Their Animals, May Not Survive the Pandemic. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/some-zoos-and-some-of-their-animals-may-not-survive-the-pandemic?
Wynen, J., Op de Beeck, S., Verhoest, K., Glavina, M., Six, F., Van Damme, P., Beutels, P., Hendrickx, G. and Pepermans, K. (2022). Taking a COVID-19 Vaccine or Not? Do Trust in Government and Trust in Experts Help us to Understand Vaccination Intention? Administration & Society, In Press. https://doi.org/10.1177/00953997211073459
Yakovlev, P.P. (2021). Latin America's economic chances in a post-covid‑19 world. World Economy and International Relations, 65(5), 5-13. https://doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2021-65-5-5-13
Yin, R. (1994). Case study research. Design and Methods. Applied Social Research Methods Series, (2nd Ed.5), Sage Publication, London.
Yin, R. (2014). Case study research design and methods, (4th ed.) Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.
Young, M.N., Tsai, T., Wang, X., Liu, S. and Ahlstrom, D. (2014). Strategy in emerging economies and the theory of the firm. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31, 331-354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-014-9373-0