Motivating employees: Beyond the carrot-and-stick techniques
Main Article Content
Keywords
Self-determination theory, autonomy, competence, relatedness, motivation, rewards, punishment.
Abstract
This article responds to three main objectives: First, it challenges the widespread use of tangible rewards (bonuses, prizes, gifts) or punishments to motivate employees and makes reference to various studies which demonstrate that such incentives do not promote intrinsic motivation and may even decrease existing motivation. Second, it presents Self-determination Theory as an alternative model to motivate people in different environments. This model defines motivation in terms of volition or autonomy and identifies three basic psychological human needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Several empirical studies, reported in the article, demonstrate that the satisfaction of these needs are directly related to intrinsic motivation and, therefore, with greater job satisfaction and productivity. Finally, three motivational strategies are offered to help institutional leaders satisfy their employees’ basic psychological needs.
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References
Angyal, A. (1965). Neurosis and treatment: A holistic theory. New York: Wiley.
Amabile, T. (1997). Motivating creativity in organizations: On doing what you love and loving what you do. California Management Review, 40(1), 39-58.
Baard, P., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic need satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 2045-2068.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Chirkov, V. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Parent and teacher autonomy-support in Russian and U.S. adolescents: Common effects on well-being and academic motivation. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 32, 618-635.
DeCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic press.
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 113-120.
Deci, E. L. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development and health. Canadian Psychology, 49, 182–185.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627-668.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The 'what' and 'why' of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). The paradox of achievement: the harder you push, the worse it gets. En J. Aronson (ed.), Improving Academic Achievement: Contributions of Social Psychology (pp. 59–85). New York: Academic Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14-23.
Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. Gagné, M., Leone, D., Usunov, J.,
& Kornazheva, B. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc country. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 930-942.
Freud, S. (1960). The ego and the id. New York: Norton.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331-362.
Green-Demers, I., Pelletier, L. G., Stewart, D. G., & Gushue, N. R. (1998). Coping with the less interesting aspects of training: Toward a model of interest and motivation enhancement in individual sports. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 251-261.
Greguras, G. J., & Diefendorff, J. M. (2009). Different fits satisfy different needs: linking person-environment fit to employee commitment and performance using self-determination theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 465-77.
Hackman, J., & Oldham, G. (1976). Motivation through design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 16, 250-279.
Iyengar, S. S., & DeVoe, S. E. (2003). Rethinking the value of choice: Considering cultural mediators of intrinsic motivation. En V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on self (Vol. 49, pp. 129-174). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean students? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 644-661. doi: 10.1037/a0014241
Kohn, A. (1993). Why incentive plans cannot work. Harvard Business Review, 71(5), 54-63.
La Guardia, J. G., & Patrick, H. (2008). Self-determination theory as a fundamental theory of close relationships. Canadian Psychology, 49, 201-209.
Lam, C. F., & Gurland S. T. (2008). Self-determined work motivation predicts job outcomes, but what predicts self-determined work motivation? Journal of Research in Personality, 42(2008), 1109-1115.
Lepper, M. R., & Henderlong, J. (2000). Turning “play” into “work” and “work” into “play”: 25 years of research on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. En C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 257–307). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Linares, A. Perilla, S. (19 de noviembre de 2012). La ciencia, preocupada por aumento de fraude en el mundo. El Tiempo. Recuperado de http://www.eltiempo.com/vida-de-hoy/ciencia/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-12390565.html
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. K. (2003). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. En V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on self (Vol. 49, pp. 1-57). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
McInerney, D. M., & Van Etten, S. (2004). Setting the stage. En D. McInerney & S. Van Etten (eds.), Big theories revisited (pp. 1–11). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
Milyavskaya, M., & Koestner, R. (2011). Psychological needs, motivation, and well-being: A test of self-determination theory across multiple domains. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 387-391.
Ministerio de Defensa Nacional (2003). Política de Defensa y Seguridad Democrática. Recuperado de http://www.oas.org/csh/spanish/documentos/Colombia.pdf
Morgeson, F. P., & Humphrey, S. E. (2006). The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and validating a comprehensive measure for assessing job design and the nature of work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1321-1339.
Newby, T. J. (1991). Classroom motivation: Strategies of first-year teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 195-200.
Niemec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7(2), 133-144. doi:10.1177/1477878509104318
Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The path taken: consequences of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations in post-college life. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 291-306.
Niemiec, C. P., Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2014). Is relatedness enough? On the importance of need support in different types of social experiences. En N. Weinstein (ed.), Human motivation and interpersonal relationships: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 77-96). New York: Springer.
Otis, N., & Pelletier, L. G. (2005). A motivational model of daily hassles, physical symptoms, and future work intentions among police officers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 2193-2214.
Patrick, H., & Williams, G. C. (2012). Self-determination theory: Its application to health behavior and complementarity with motivational interviewing. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 18. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-9-18
Pearson, J., Nelson, P., Titsworth, S., & Harter, L. (2006). Human Communication (2a ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Hardre, P., & Omura, M. (2002). Providing a rationale in an autonomy-supportive way as a strategy to motivate others during an uninteresting activity. Motivation and Emotion, 26(3), 183-207.
Reinboth, M., Duda, J. L., & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). Dimensions of coaching behavior, need satisfaction, and the psychological and physical welfare of young athletes. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 297-313.
Richer, S. F., Blanchard, C., & Vallerand, R. J. (2002). A motivational model of work turnover. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 2089-2113.
Rogers, C. R. (1963). The actualizing tendency in relation to “motives” and to consciousness. En M. R. Jones (ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 11, pp. 1-24). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2009). Promoting Self-determined school engagement: Motivation, learning, and well-being. En K. Wentzel, & A. Wigfield (eds.), Handbook of Motivation at School (pp. 171-195). New York: NY, Taylor & Francis.
Ryan, R. M., Williams, G. C., Patrick, H., & Deci, E. L. (2009). Self-determination theory and physical activity: The dynamics of motivation in development and wellness. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6, 107-124.
Rynders, G. L. (1999). Listening and leadership: a study on their relationship. Recuperado de http://www.usfa.fema.gov/pdf/efop/efo29219.pdf
Shapira, Z. (1976). A facet analysis of leadership styles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 136-139.
Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2001). Getting older, getting better? Personal strivings and psychological maturity across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 37, 491-501.
Shell, D. F., & Husman, J. (2001). The multivariate dimensionality of personal control and future time perspective beliefs in achievement and self-regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 481-506.
Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., Luyckx, K.,
Goossens, L., Beyers, W., & Ryan, R. M. (2007).
Conceptualizing parental autonomy support: Adolescent perceptions of promotion of independence versus promotion of volitional functioning. Developmental Psychology, 43, 633-646.
Stone, D., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34, 75-91.
Tang, L. P., Kim, J. K., & Tang, S. H. (2000). Does attitude toward money moderate the relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and voluntary turnover? Human Relations, 53(2), 213-245.
Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high-school drop-out. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1161-1176.
Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H, Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 981-1002. doi: 10.1348/096317909X481382
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and internally controlling versus autonomy-supportive communication style upon early adolescents’ academic achievement. Child Development, 76, 483-
501.
Vansteenkiste, M., Zhou, M., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2005). Experiences of autonomy and control among Chinese learners: Vitalizing or immobilizing? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 755-764.
Vansteenkiste, M., & Deci, E. L. (2003). Competitively contingent rewards and intrinsic motivation: Can losers remain motivated? Motivation and Emotion, 27(4), 273-299.
Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 54, 314-334.
Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81.
Williams, G. C. (2002). Improving patients' health through supporting the autonomy of patients and providers. En E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 233–254). Rochester, NY: University Of Rochester Press.
Winnicott, D. W. (1965). Los procesos de maduración y el ambiente facilitador. Barcelona: Paidos.
Wright, S. L., Burt, C. D., & Strongman, K. T. (2006). Loneliness in the workplace: Construct definition and scale development. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 35, 59-68.
Yamauchi, H., & Tanaka, K. (1998). Relations of autonomy, self-referenced beliefs and self-regulated learning among Japanese children. Psychological Reports, 82, 803-816.
Amabile, T. (1997). Motivating creativity in organizations: On doing what you love and loving what you do. California Management Review, 40(1), 39-58.
Baard, P., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic need satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 2045-2068.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Chirkov, V. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Parent and teacher autonomy-support in Russian and U.S. adolescents: Common effects on well-being and academic motivation. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 32, 618-635.
DeCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic press.
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 113-120.
Deci, E. L. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development and health. Canadian Psychology, 49, 182–185.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627-668.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The 'what' and 'why' of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). The paradox of achievement: the harder you push, the worse it gets. En J. Aronson (ed.), Improving Academic Achievement: Contributions of Social Psychology (pp. 59–85). New York: Academic Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14-23.
Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. Gagné, M., Leone, D., Usunov, J.,
& Kornazheva, B. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc country. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 930-942.
Freud, S. (1960). The ego and the id. New York: Norton.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331-362.
Green-Demers, I., Pelletier, L. G., Stewart, D. G., & Gushue, N. R. (1998). Coping with the less interesting aspects of training: Toward a model of interest and motivation enhancement in individual sports. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 251-261.
Greguras, G. J., & Diefendorff, J. M. (2009). Different fits satisfy different needs: linking person-environment fit to employee commitment and performance using self-determination theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 465-77.
Hackman, J., & Oldham, G. (1976). Motivation through design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 16, 250-279.
Iyengar, S. S., & DeVoe, S. E. (2003). Rethinking the value of choice: Considering cultural mediators of intrinsic motivation. En V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on self (Vol. 49, pp. 129-174). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean students? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 644-661. doi: 10.1037/a0014241
Kohn, A. (1993). Why incentive plans cannot work. Harvard Business Review, 71(5), 54-63.
La Guardia, J. G., & Patrick, H. (2008). Self-determination theory as a fundamental theory of close relationships. Canadian Psychology, 49, 201-209.
Lam, C. F., & Gurland S. T. (2008). Self-determined work motivation predicts job outcomes, but what predicts self-determined work motivation? Journal of Research in Personality, 42(2008), 1109-1115.
Lepper, M. R., & Henderlong, J. (2000). Turning “play” into “work” and “work” into “play”: 25 years of research on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. En C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 257–307). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Linares, A. Perilla, S. (19 de noviembre de 2012). La ciencia, preocupada por aumento de fraude en el mundo. El Tiempo. Recuperado de http://www.eltiempo.com/vida-de-hoy/ciencia/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-12390565.html
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. K. (2003). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. En V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on self (Vol. 49, pp. 1-57). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
McInerney, D. M., & Van Etten, S. (2004). Setting the stage. En D. McInerney & S. Van Etten (eds.), Big theories revisited (pp. 1–11). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
Milyavskaya, M., & Koestner, R. (2011). Psychological needs, motivation, and well-being: A test of self-determination theory across multiple domains. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 387-391.
Ministerio de Defensa Nacional (2003). Política de Defensa y Seguridad Democrática. Recuperado de http://www.oas.org/csh/spanish/documentos/Colombia.pdf
Morgeson, F. P., & Humphrey, S. E. (2006). The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and validating a comprehensive measure for assessing job design and the nature of work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1321-1339.
Newby, T. J. (1991). Classroom motivation: Strategies of first-year teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 195-200.
Niemec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7(2), 133-144. doi:10.1177/1477878509104318
Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The path taken: consequences of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations in post-college life. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 291-306.
Niemiec, C. P., Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2014). Is relatedness enough? On the importance of need support in different types of social experiences. En N. Weinstein (ed.), Human motivation and interpersonal relationships: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 77-96). New York: Springer.
Otis, N., & Pelletier, L. G. (2005). A motivational model of daily hassles, physical symptoms, and future work intentions among police officers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 2193-2214.
Patrick, H., & Williams, G. C. (2012). Self-determination theory: Its application to health behavior and complementarity with motivational interviewing. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 18. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-9-18
Pearson, J., Nelson, P., Titsworth, S., & Harter, L. (2006). Human Communication (2a ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Hardre, P., & Omura, M. (2002). Providing a rationale in an autonomy-supportive way as a strategy to motivate others during an uninteresting activity. Motivation and Emotion, 26(3), 183-207.
Reinboth, M., Duda, J. L., & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). Dimensions of coaching behavior, need satisfaction, and the psychological and physical welfare of young athletes. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 297-313.
Richer, S. F., Blanchard, C., & Vallerand, R. J. (2002). A motivational model of work turnover. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 2089-2113.
Rogers, C. R. (1963). The actualizing tendency in relation to “motives” and to consciousness. En M. R. Jones (ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 11, pp. 1-24). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2009). Promoting Self-determined school engagement: Motivation, learning, and well-being. En K. Wentzel, & A. Wigfield (eds.), Handbook of Motivation at School (pp. 171-195). New York: NY, Taylor & Francis.
Ryan, R. M., Williams, G. C., Patrick, H., & Deci, E. L. (2009). Self-determination theory and physical activity: The dynamics of motivation in development and wellness. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6, 107-124.
Rynders, G. L. (1999). Listening and leadership: a study on their relationship. Recuperado de http://www.usfa.fema.gov/pdf/efop/efo29219.pdf
Shapira, Z. (1976). A facet analysis of leadership styles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 136-139.
Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2001). Getting older, getting better? Personal strivings and psychological maturity across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 37, 491-501.
Shell, D. F., & Husman, J. (2001). The multivariate dimensionality of personal control and future time perspective beliefs in achievement and self-regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 481-506.
Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., Luyckx, K.,
Goossens, L., Beyers, W., & Ryan, R. M. (2007).
Conceptualizing parental autonomy support: Adolescent perceptions of promotion of independence versus promotion of volitional functioning. Developmental Psychology, 43, 633-646.
Stone, D., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34, 75-91.
Tang, L. P., Kim, J. K., & Tang, S. H. (2000). Does attitude toward money moderate the relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and voluntary turnover? Human Relations, 53(2), 213-245.
Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high-school drop-out. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1161-1176.
Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H, Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 981-1002. doi: 10.1348/096317909X481382
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and internally controlling versus autonomy-supportive communication style upon early adolescents’ academic achievement. Child Development, 76, 483-
501.
Vansteenkiste, M., Zhou, M., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2005). Experiences of autonomy and control among Chinese learners: Vitalizing or immobilizing? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 755-764.
Vansteenkiste, M., & Deci, E. L. (2003). Competitively contingent rewards and intrinsic motivation: Can losers remain motivated? Motivation and Emotion, 27(4), 273-299.
Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 54, 314-334.
Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81.
Williams, G. C. (2002). Improving patients' health through supporting the autonomy of patients and providers. En E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 233–254). Rochester, NY: University Of Rochester Press.
Winnicott, D. W. (1965). Los procesos de maduración y el ambiente facilitador. Barcelona: Paidos.
Wright, S. L., Burt, C. D., & Strongman, K. T. (2006). Loneliness in the workplace: Construct definition and scale development. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 35, 59-68.
Yamauchi, H., & Tanaka, K. (1998). Relations of autonomy, self-referenced beliefs and self-regulated learning among Japanese children. Psychological Reports, 82, 803-816.
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May 22, 2014
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Muñoz Restrepo, A., & Ramirez Valencia, M. (2014). Motivating employees: Beyond the carrot-and-stick techniques. AD-Minister, (24), 143–160. Retrieved from https://publicaciones.eafit.edu.co/index.php/administer/article/view/2312
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Ana Muñoz Restrepo, Universidad EAFIT
Ana Muñoz, magister en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras; coordinadora de la unidad de investigación y docencia del Centro de Idiomas de la Universidad EAFITMarta Ramirez Valencia, Universidad EAFIT
Marta Ramirez, magister en psicología, psicoanalista e investigadora en el grupo de investigación del Centro de Idiomas de la Universidad EAFITAuthors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
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